From paper to digital documents : Challenging and improving the SGML approach

This research has been initiated on the basis of practical experiences in developing a relatively large SGML system at the University of Oslo. This thesis contributes to the field of information systems, with a particular focus on document systems. The aim of this work is to inform the design of document systems by considering the transformation from paper to digital documents in organizations. The Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML, ISO 8879) approach is emphasized. The SGML approach takes the documents' structure and content as the starting point in design, and regards the document as a collection of structured information. This approach is challenged and tentatively improved by empirical studies of documents in use and theoretical considerations of artifacts at work. The research approach has been an Action Case, as defined by Vidgen and Braa (1997). The interpretation of the transformation process from paper to digital documents is based mainly on an in-depth case study that was conducted at a Norwegian news agency from January 1996 to March 1998. The empirical findings are discussed according to theoretical concepts that emphasize the significance of artifacts at work to illuminate the various roles of documents at work. Concepts from the Actor Network Theory (ANT) (for example, see Callon, 1986; Latour, 1987; Law, 1986) are applied to emphasize the interrelations of humans and artifacts, as well as the importance of artifacts' properties in these relations. The concepts of 'boundary object' (Star and Griesemer; 1989) and 'borderline issues' (Brown and Duguid, 1994) are applied to get various perspectives on the actor-network. The study illustrates that it is challenging to substitute paper documents with SGML documents. Firstly, two different types of technology, with different properties and features, are exchanged. By removing paper documents, we also remove resources that go beyond the canonical meaning of the artifact. These resources are related to paper as a technology. Secondly, the document perspective in SGML is too restricted in relation to the various perspectives on documents in practical use. The emphasis on structure complicates the production of documents. Thirdly, the application of shared document models across work practices turns the various heterogeneous actor-networks into one network, which requires a common objective among the actors involved. The dilemma of "who does the job and who gets the benefits" (Grudin, 1989; 1994) arises as well. The study indicates that an investigation of the actor-networks that include documents provides an insight into the more hidden aspects of work. By regarding documents' central, peripheral, local and shared properties, one can gain an understanding of how documents are embedded in work, including the importance of documents and related artifacts to aspects such as awareness, articulation and coordination of work. The properties determine how things become interrelated into heterogeneous networks. The research shows how a document's properties or inscriptions are essential to its production and application in use. Insight into these prerequisites helps us to understand how the computer system can fit into work practices, even if we do have no guarantees that it will be used in the way that we expect. According to design, work practices are improved by changing the technical properties or the technical fundamentals, by adding various inscriptions into the system. This thesis describes how an existing system was improved by the use of 'gateways'. In the design of the gateways, the idea has been to keep the technical possibilities that SGML provides, and at the same time take into account our knowledge about the paperwork

The First Steps in Designing an SGML-Based Infrastructure for Document Handling

In this paper we present and discuss efforts to design an SGML-based infrastructure in an institutionalized work setting. The initial goal was to improve the “functionality” of documents in order to access, update, search, use and reuse, retrieve, present, exchange and distribute them independently of time and place and without loss of information. From a technical point of view, standardization is a prerequisite for success. In the pilot project presented in this paper, Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML, ISO 8879) is applied. However, the study has shown that writers experience standardization as a restricting factor in their work, and local flexibility is essential. In relation to SGML-based infrastructures, this has consequences for DTD design and for the selection of authoring tools. The study has also indicated that documents are artifacts that are integrated into practice, and this has to be taken into account in design of document technology

What Do Artifacts Mean to Us in Work?

This paper illustrates how artifacts are active elements in the relationships of people and between people and their environments. This does not only mean that they are active in the sense that they are necessary, but also, active in a way that coordinate, and even trigger or initiate, work. The use of artifacts may over time become manifold and not necessarily just serving their initial purpose. Based on the artifacts' property various conventions grow around them and become resources that a community of practice relies on. To improve the understanding of work, these conventions or resources needs to be better understood -- even if only to explain what work will be like without them. Concepts from `Actor Network Theory' and `Borderline Issues' are applied for analytical purposes

Towards Incorporating Computer Applications in Cooperative Work Arrangements - An activity theoretical approach

: In this paper some first steps are taken toward a framework for design of computer systems which are incorporated in cooperative work arrangements. The framework is later to be used in further empirical studies. The framework emphasises work, and how individual work relates to cooperative work and the work arrangement it is part of. Activity theory is taken as a basis, and is developed by discussing how the computer is incorporated in all aspects of human activity. Further studies will examine the important question of how the different roles of the computer are to be integrated. 1 Introduction Many approaches exist which address cooperative work, as well as the role and design of computer applications embedded in cooperative work. This paper adds a framework for further design of computer systems incorporated in cooperative work arrangements based on activity theory. Towards Incorporating Computer Applications in Cooperative Work Arrangements 2 5. September 1997 We want to focu..

Use of paragraph styles in word processing: a stepping stone for CSCW?

Word processing is a very common application of computing. Word processing is involved in several settings with interdependent work tasks, such as collaborative writing and electronic publishing. Through document templates and style mechanisms word processors provide facilities which may support cooperative work. It turns out, however, that there are problems with the use of these mechanisms. They are little used, and in using them people experience several difficulties. Keywords: paragraph styles, document templates, word processing, interdependent work, WYSIWYG, electronic publishing, collaborative writing CR categories: H.3.6, H.4.3, H.5.2, I.7.1, I.7.2, J.1 1 Modern word processing Word processing is more than computer support for individuals writing text. Increasingly, word processing is one of several activities in a chain of activities leading to a printed or electronically published document. Several other people may be involved: other authors, editors, typists, information ..